The relationship and consequences of venomous animal encounters in the context of climate change

Numerous impacts of climate change have been verified and discussed in recent decades (Agache et al., 2022). However, accidents involving encounters with different species of venomous animals remain a problem, with many gaps in knowledge. The majority of studies on venomous animals include data on snakebites, but other animals, including scorpions, bees, spiders, caterpillars, and marine animals (Chippaux, 2015), constitute a significant portion of the records worldwide. As this is a serious public health issue, the official reporting of cases is mandatory in many countries, including 17 nations in the American continent (Fernández & Youssef, 2023). This is a significant step for the prevention and implementation of mitigation measures for these accidents, given their importance for public health management. Estimates indicate that annually, there are 1.8–2.7 million cases of snakebite envenomation in humans, resulting in a tragic toll of 81 000–138 000 deaths, and leaving 400 000 individuals with permanent physical and psychological sequelae (Gutiérrez et al., 2017). Like data are difficult to track because of problems with proper recording and dissemination to national health systems, especially in poor regions, and, most importantly, because most updated scientific research focuses on snakebites (Gutiérrez et al., 2017). Just as with snakes, scorpion sting envenomation emerges as a serious health problem in certain regions of the world, resulting in 1.2 million annual occurrences and over 3000 deaths (Chippaux & Goyffon, 2008). Cases of envenomation from spider bites, as well as from other arthropods and marine organisms, equally represent a significant concern in the medical field (Martinez et al., 2022). These accidents typically occur in areas with lower socioeconomic status, precarious housing, rural communities, areas with limited access to healthcare services, and a scarcity of medical resources (Gutiérrez et al., 2017). The regulation of body temperature in many terrestrial venomous species is influenced by environmental factors, as they are ectothermic, meaning that their body temperature is directly linked to environmental conditions (Nori et al., 2014). This temperature control is predominantly behavioral rather than metabolic, unlike endothermic animals. Therefore, it is widely accepted that variations in temperature and humidity have significant impacts on the behavior, reproduction, brumation, feeding, and activity of these animals (Chippaux, 2017; Williams et al., 2015). Climate change has significant impacts on venomous animals such as snakes, scorpions, and spiders. For snakes, climate can affect both the increase and decrease of their populations (Yañez-Arenas et al., 2016). Additionally, human population growth and economic development are directly linked to biodiversity loss, exacerbating the risks of snakebite accidents (Krauss et al., 2010). Similarly, species of scorpions, like Tenebrio obscurus, benefit from higher temperatures, suggesting a possible expansion to higher latitudes due to climate change (Martinez et al., 2018). Temperature also influences habitat selection by spiders (Glover, 2013), while climate change affects the distribution and behavior of Hymenoptera insects, increasing encounters with humans (Demain, 2021) and amplifying health and ecosystem risks due to the presence of invasive species (Feás, 2021; Feás et al., 2022). In summary, there is still much to be explored and understood about venomous animals and how climate change and human development affect their ecology and behavior. Although some aspects have been studied and documented, significant gaps remain in our knowledge that need to be filled. There is still much to be explored and understood about venomous animals and how climate change and human development affect their ecology and behavior. A valuable ally in expanding the scope of the investigation is the use of mathematical prediction models, which can play an important role in understanding and mitigating the risks associated with accidents involving venomous animals in the face of climate change. As climate conditions change, the distribution and behavior of these animals may undergo significant shifts, and the use of mathematical models can aid in understanding predictive scenarios. Over the past few decades, species distribution models have emerged as essential tools for anticipating the potential future distribution of a specific species, including for venomous animals (Kazemi et al., 2023), in response to climate change (Lu et al., 2024). Additionally, machine learning tools have demonstrated the ability to effectively predict future outcomes for environmental (Mosavi et al., 2018) and health-related (Mohan et al., 2019) outcomes. Nevertheless, it is important to point out that accidents involving venomous animals are also consequences of other anthropic variables that are directly or indirectly related to climate change, such as deforestation, migration, disorderly urbanization, unsafe housing, and socioeconomic changes (Konstantyner et al., 2022). In addition, lack of basic sanitation and waste collection, behavioral factors, misinformation, and difficulties in accessing health services and therapy with antivenom serums (Potet et al., 2021) can also be cited. Previous studies have already highlighted the importance of introducing mandatory reporting to improve the management of accidents involving venomous animals. To this end, however, the training of health professionals is an essential prerequisite, as the incompleteness of reporting is a serious and chronic obstacle that prevents in-depth analysis of cases and the development of strategies to better address the problem (Brito et al., 2023). Finally, one must not underestimate the role of environmental and health education. This can encourage a reduction in response times in seeking specialized help and thus minimizing sequelae and deaths, and can promote social awareness of anthropogenic action on the planet in the search for a balance between human progress and the coexistence with the biodiversity. Livia da Silva Freitas: Writing—original draft; writing—review and editing. Fernando R. de Moura: Writing—original draft; writing—review and editing. Romina Buffarini: Writing—original draft; writing—review and editing. Xesús Feás: Writing—original draft; writing—review and editing. Flávio M. R. da Silva Júnior: Conceptualization; writing—review and editing, supervision. Funding for this work is from the Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico, 307791/2023-8 and Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior, 001.