Probing Sulfur Deposition onto Carbon Nanomaterials from Aqueous, Elemental Sulfur Sols for Lithium–Sulfur Batteries

Sulfur cathodes for lithium–sulfur batteries often rely on integrating sulfur with high surface area carbonaceous materials. Nanoscale mixing is typically achieved by a lengthy, high-temperature melt imbibition approach that employs carbon nanomaterials in an aggregated solid form. In this work, we present a simple strategy to coat carbon nanomaterials with sulfur in a cost-effective, room-temperature process using inexpensive elemental sulfur. Our results are based on hydrophobic sulfur sols, which have rarely been examined for use in the preparation of sulfur cathodes. We study the deposition mechanism on different carbon materials and find that sulfur dissolves from the sol into the aqueous phase and coats the surface of reduced graphene oxide (rGO) by heterogeneous nucleation and growth, but that this mechanism is not favored for carbon materials such as Ketjen black (KB) and graphene oxide (GO), for which undesirable homogeneous nucleation of micron-sized, insulating sulfur crystals is observed. High loading (3–4 mgsulfur/cm2) rGO-based cathodes prepared using this approach achieve discharge capacities of 1300 mAh/gsulfur (∼4.8 mAh/cm2) at 0.1C and achieve capacities 7-fold higher than cells prepared via traditional melt imbibition approaches at higher rates of 0.8C and 1C. Cells prepared without the need for added binder or conductive additive achieve projected full cell energy densities of 468 Wh/kg at 0.1C when taking into account all inactive components and assuming no lithium metal degradation, indicating that the deposition of sulfur from hydrophobic sols onto carbon nanomaterials can serve as a simple, aqueous-based, one-step process to prepare high sulfur loading cathodes with high projected energy densities.