Recent advances in micro- and nano-bubbles for atherosclerosis applications

Atherosclerosis is the most prevalent cause of cardiovascular disease-induced deaths worldwide. Micro- and nano-bubbles (MNBs) have been developed as the vehicles for detection, investigation, and drug delivery, specifically targeting atherosclerotic sites. MNBs have been clinically applied and commercialized as contrast agents because they typically respond to ultrasound for guiding and stimulating imaging. The assembly process involves some specific substrates (proteins, lipids, and polymers) to adjust their characteristics and depends upon rational designs for combined therapeutic-diagnostic (theranostic) applications. Ancillary surface modifications of MNBs enable the unification of MNBs with antibody, inflammatory markers, or genes to more specifically deliver cargos to the oxidized lipid-rich quarry area and release the payloads on demand to the lesion site. This review provides brief information on the process of fabricating MNBs and their applications in bio-nanomedicine for diagnosing and remodeling atherosclerosis.