Mitochondrial functions in plant immunity

Pathogens have evolved different strategies to facilitate invasion of plants, including delivering enzymes and effector proteins to perturb mitochondrial morphology and functions. Mitochondria mediate the oxidative burst of reactive oxygen species and reactive nitrogen species for the activation of immune responses. Mitochondrial structural components, dynamics, and metabolism are closely associated with defense responses. Mitochondria are important in salicylic acid–mediated resistance and participate in the interplay among different hormones. Mitochondria mediate immune signal perception and amplification and play a central role in programmed cell death (PCD). Mitochondria cooperate with the chloroplast and nucleus in executing PCD and activating immune responses. Mitochondria are energy factories of cells and are important for intracellular interactions with other organelles. Emerging evidence indicates that mitochondria play essential roles in the response to pathogen infection. During infection, pathogens deliver numerous enzymes and effectors into host cells, and some of these effectors target mitochondria, altering mitochondrial morphology, metabolism, and functions. To defend against pathogen attack, mitochondria are actively involved in changing intracellular metabolism, hormone-mediated signaling, and signal transduction, producing reactive oxygen species and reactive nitrogen species and triggering programmed cell death. Additionally, mitochondria coordinate with other organelles to integrate and amplify diverse immune signals. In this review, we summarize recent advances in understanding how mitochondria function in plant immunity and how pathogens target mitochondria for host defense suppression. Mitochondria are energy factories of cells and are important for intracellular interactions with other organelles. Emerging evidence indicates that mitochondria play essential roles in the response to pathogen infection. During infection, pathogens deliver numerous enzymes and effectors into host cells, and some of these effectors target mitochondria, altering mitochondrial morphology, metabolism, and functions. To defend against pathogen attack, mitochondria are actively involved in changing intracellular metabolism, hormone-mediated signaling, and signal transduction, producing reactive oxygen species and reactive nitrogen species and triggering programmed cell death. Additionally, mitochondria coordinate with other organelles to integrate and amplify diverse immune signals. In this review, we summarize recent advances in understanding how mitochondria function in plant immunity and how pathogens target mitochondria for host defense suppression. a small hemeprotein associated with the inner mitochondrial membrane and essential electron transport chain component. Cyt c is vital for programmed cell death and is released through the permeability transition pore when the outer mitochondrial membrane ruptures. a form of programmed cell death characterized by the rapid death of cells in the local region surrounding an infection. HR is commonly thought of as an effective defense strategy against biotrophic plant pathogens but might benefit necrotrophic pathogens. generated by proton pumps (complexes I, III, and IV) and an essential component in the process of energy storage during oxidative phosphorylation. Mitochondrial membrane potential and proton gradient produce a transmembrane potential, which is harnessed to make ATP. Loss of the membrane potential leads to cyt c release and programmed cell death. by-products of the normal metabolism of oxygen and mainly generated at the electron transport chain (enzyme complexes I–IV and ATP synthase) during oxidative phosphorylation. They are critical signaling molecules and are involved in the response to pathogen infection. High levels of mROS activate programmed cell death. a nonspecific pore that forms in the inner and outer mitochondrial membranes, composed of voltage-dependent anion channels (VDACs) in the outer membrane, adenine nucleotide translocator (ANT) in the inner membrane, and cyclophilin D. The PTP plays an important role in cell death. a type of cell death that results from a series of molecular steps essential for proper growth and development. PCD also participates in plant defense responses to abiotic and biotic stresses. PCD may benefit plants in their interaction with biotrophic and hemibiotrophic pathogens but also may benefit necrotrophic pathogens. a signaling cascade that modulates the expression of nuclear genes in response to changes in mitochondrial and chloroplastic function.