A Hepatic Oxidative Metabolite of Palmatine Ameliorates DSS-Induced Ulcerative Colitis by Regulating Macrophage Polarization Through AMPK/NF-κB Pathway

Palmatine (PAL) and berberine are both classified as protoberberine alkaloids, derived from several traditional Chinese herbs such as Coptis chinensis Franch. and Phellodendron chinense Schneid. These compounds are extensively used in treating dysentery and colitis. PAL is one of the crucial quality markers for these plants in the Chinese Pharmacopoeia. A key metabolite of PAL, 8-Oxypalmatine (OPAL), shows favorable anti-inflammatory activity and better safety compared to PAL, though its mechanisms in ulcerative colitis (UC) are not fully understood. This study used a dextran sodium sulfate-induced colitis mouse model to explore OPAL's effects. The results indicated that OPAL provided superior therapeutic effects to those of PAL, alleviating colitis symptoms and reducing colon inflammation by modulating pro-inflammatory (tumor necrosis factor-α, interleukin-1β, and interleukin-6) and anti-inflammatory (transforming growth factor-β and interleukin-10) cytokines. Additionally, OPAL helped rebuild the mucus barrier and upregulated tight junction proteins, thereby restoring intestinal integrity. Notably, OPAL inhibited the M1 macrophages infiltration while promoting M2 macrophage distribution in the colon. Its role in fostering M2 polarization and modulating the inflammatory cytokine profile was further confirmed in vitro. Importantly, the anti-inflammatory effects were primarily linked to AMP-activated protein kinase activation, which subsequently inhibited the nuclear factor-kappa B pathway. These findings highlight OPAL as a crucial active metabolite responsible for the therapeutic effects of PAL against UC, emphasizing its potential as a novel treatment for this condition.