Intestinal IL-33 promotes microbiota-derived trimethylamine N-oxide synthesis and drives metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease progression by exerting dual regulation on HIF-1α

Gut microbiota play a prominent role in the pathogenesis of metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease (MASLD). Interleukin-33 (IL-33) is highly expressed at mucosal barrier sites and regulates intestinal homeostasis. Herein, we aimed to investigate the role and mechanism of intestinal IL-33 in MASLD.