Fluoro-photoacoustic polymeric renal reporter for real-time dual imaging of acute kidney injury

In this chapter, we introduced a diagnostic approach for acute kidney injury (AKI) via photoacoustic imaging. We provided detailed synthetic procedures of a biomarker-activatable photoacoustic agent (FPRR) with high renal clearance efficiency. We also provided protocols for in vitro characterization, live-cell imaging, and in vivo imaging in a drug-induced AKI mice model. Compared to near-infrared fluorescence imaging, photoacoustic imaging is more sensitive with higher signal-to-background ratio. As such, our approach serves as a general guideline in the development of photoacoustic agents for diagnosis of urological diseases. With this tool in hand, researchers in the field of optical imaging may be inspired to develop other photoacoustic agents for early stage disease diagnosis.