Pine pollen: A review of its chemical composition, health effects, processing, and food applications

Pine pollen, well-known as a "natural micro-nutrient bank," is the male spore of Pinus massoniana Lamb., Pinus tabuliformis Carr., and other plants of the same genus. Pine pollen has a long history of use in China as a traditional medicinal and edible material due to its rich nutrients, bioactive compounds, and health potential. This review summarizes the published findings related to chemical compositions, health effects, processing and storage, and food applications of pine pollen. The possible mechanisms behind the beneficial properties of pine pollen, and the future direction for research and development are also underlined. Pine pollen is a rich source of macronutrients and bioactive compounds that have demonstrated various health benefits, including antioxidant, immunomodulatory, anti-inflammatory, glucose and lipid metabolism regulatory, antimicrobial and antiviral, antitumor and anticancer, hepatoprotective, gastrointestinal modulatory, anti-aging, and other biological properties. The nutritional quality and beneficial effects of pine pollen are influenced by post-harvest processing methods. Pine pollen has diverse applications in the food industry, such as in beverages, pastries, dairy products, delivery systems, and as sorbents for separation and purification of polar analytes. Further in vivo experiments and clinical trials are needed to deepen our understanding of its health benefits. Exploring combinations of multiple processing methods could optimize the utilization of pine pollen as a nutritional food resource.