The semi-periphery and ecologically unequal exchange: carbon emissions and recursive exploitation

Social science research has been increasingly interested in the relationships between the environment and the economy. One critical research agenda – ecological unequal exchange – has explored the asymmetric flow of resources and unequal distribution of environmental harms across the world economy, particularly between high-income and low-income countries. However, research into the relationship between middle-income nations and low-income nations has been relatively minimal. This study, building off a world-systems taxonomy of core, semi-periphery, and periphery states, looks to extend research into the ecological dynamics captured in the trade among the non-core states, with regards to carbon emissions, over the course of 1996–2018. I find that patterns of ecological unequal exchange vary among the tiers of the semi-periphery – identified as the 'Semi-Core,' the 'Regional Powers,' and the 'Secondary Regional States' – suggesting the importance of tier-specific political-economic features in generating ecological unequal exchange outcomes.