Interferons and epigenetic mechanisms in training, priming and tolerance of monocytes and hematopoietic progenitors

Summary Training and priming of innate immune cells involve preconditioning by PAMPs, DAMPs, and/or cytokines that elicits stronger induction of inflammatory genes upon secondary challenge. Previous models distinguish training and priming based upon whether immune activation returns to baseline prior to secondary challenge. Tolerance is a protective mechanism whereby potent stimuli induce refractoriness to secondary challenge. Training and priming are important for innate memory responses that protect against infection, efficacy of vaccines, and maintaining innate immune cells in a state of readiness; tolerance prevents toxicity from excessive immune activation. Dysregulation of these processes can contribute to pathogenesis of autoimmune/inflammatory conditions, post‐COVID‐19 hyperinflammatory states, or sepsis‐associated immunoparalysis. Training, priming, and tolerance regulate similar “signature” inflammatory genes such as TNF , IL6 , and IL1B and utilize overlapping epigenetic mechanisms. We review how interferons (IFNs), best known for activating JAK–STAT signaling and interferon‐stimulated genes, also play a key role in regulating training, priming, and tolerance via chromatin‐mediated mechanisms. We present new data on how monocyte‐to‐macrophage differentiation modulates IFN‐γ‐mediated priming, affects regulation of AP‐1 and CEBP activity, and attenuates superinduction of inflammatory genes. We present a “training‐priming continuum” model that integrates IFN‐mediated priming into current concepts about training and tolerance and proposes a central role for STAT1 and IRF1.