EASL clinical practice guidelines on the management of ascites, spontaneous bacterial peritonitis, and hepatorenal syndrome in cirrhosis

Ascites is the most common complication of cirrhosis, and ∼60% of patients with compensated cirrhosis develop ascites within 10 years during the course of their disease [[1]Ginès P. Quintero E. Arroyo V. et al.Compensated cirrhosis: natural history and prognostic factors.Hepatology. 1987; 7: 122-128Crossref PubMed Scopus (486) Google Scholar]. Ascites only occurs when portal hypertension has developed [[2]Ripoll C. Groszmann R. Garcia-Tsao G. et al.Hepatic venous gradient predicts clinical decompensation in patients with compensated cirrhosis.Gastroenterology. 2007; 133: 481-488Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (247) Google Scholar] and is primarily related to an inability to excrete an adequate amount of sodium into urine, leading to a positive sodium balance. A large body of evidence suggests that renal sodium retention in patients with cirrhosis is secondary to arterial splanchnic vasodilation. This causes a decrease in effective arterial blood volume with activation of arterial and cardiopulmonary volume receptors, and homeostatic activation of vasoconstrictor and sodium-retaining systems (i.e., the sympathetic nervous system and the renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system). Renal sodium retention leads to expansion of the extracellular fluid volume and formation of ascites and edema [3Schrier R.W. Arroyo V. Bernardi M. et al.Peripheral arterial vasodilation hypothesis: a proposal for the initiation of renal sodium and water retention in cirrhosis.Hepatology. 1988; 8: 1151-1157Crossref PubMed Google Scholar, 4Møller S. Henriksen J.H. The systemic circulation in cirrhosis.in: Ginès P. Arroyo V. Rodés J. Schrier R.W. Ascites and renal dysfunction in liver disease. Blackwell, Malden2005: 139-155Crossref Google Scholar, 5Henriksen J.H. Møller S. Alterations of hepatic and splanchnic microvascular exchange in cirrhosis: local factors in the formation of ascites.in: Ginès P. Arroyo V. Rodés J. Schrier R.W. Ascites and renal dysfunction in liver disease. Blackwell, Malden2005: 174-185Crossref Google Scholar]. The development of ascites is associated with a poor prognosis and impaired quality of life in patients with cirrhosis [6Tandon P. Garcia-Tsao G. Bacterial infections, sepsis, and multiorgan failure in cirrhosis.Semin Liver Dis. 2008; 28: 26-42Crossref PubMed Scopus (179) Google Scholar, 7Guevara M. Cárdenas A. Uriz J. Ginès P. Prognosis in patients with cirrhosis and ascites.in: Ginès P. Arroyo V. Rodés J. Schrier R.W. Ascites and renal dysfunction in liver disease: pathogenesis, diagnosis and treatment. Blackwell, Malden2005: 260-270Crossref Google Scholar]. Thus, patients with ascites should generally be considered for referral for liver transplantation. There is a clear rationale for the management of ascites in patients with cirrhosis, as a successful treatment may improve the outcome and symptoms. A panel of experts was selected by the EASL Governing Board and met several times to discuss and write these guidelines during 2008–2009. These guidelines were written according to published studies retrieved from Pubmed. The evidence and recommendations made in these guidelines have been graded according to the GRADE system (Grading of Recommendations Assessment Development and Evaluation). The strength of evidence has been classified into three levels: A, high; B, moderate; and C, low-quality evidence, while that of the recommendation into two: strong and weak (Table 1). Where no clear evidence existed, the recommendations were based on the consensus advice of expert opinion(s) in the literature and that of the writing committee.Table 1Grading evidence and recommendations (adapted from the GRADE system).NotesSymbolGrading of evidence High quality evidenceFurther research is very unlikely to change our confidence in the estimate of effectA Moderate quality evidenceFurther research is likely to have an important impact on our confidence in the estimate of effect and may change the estimateB Low or very low quality of evidenceFurther research is very likely to have an important impact on our confidence in the estimate of effect and is likely to change the estimate. Any estimate of effect is uncertainCGrading recommendation Strong recommendation warrantedFactors influencing the strength of the recommendation included the quality of evidence, presumed patient-important outcomes, and cost1 Weaker recommendationVariability in preferences and values, or more uncertainty: more likely a weak recommendation is warranted2Recommendation is made with less certainty: higher cost or resource consumption Open table in a new tab Approximately 75% of patients presenting with ascites in Western Europe or the USA have cirrhosis as the underlying cause. For the remaining patients, ascites is caused by malignancy, heart failure, tuberculosis, pancreatic disease, or other miscellaneous causes. The initial evaluation of a patient with ascites should include history, physical examination, abdominal ultrasound, and laboratory assessment of liver function, renal function, serum and urine electrolytes, as well as an analysis of the ascitic fluid. The International Ascites Club proposed to link the choice of treatment of uncomplicated ascites to a classification of ascites on the basis of a quantitative criterion (Table 2). The authors of the current guidelines agree with this proposal.Table 2Grading of ascites and suggested treatment.Grade of ascitesDefinitionTreatmentGrade 1 ascitesMild ascites only detectable by ultrasoundNo treatmentGrade 2 ascitesModerate ascites evident by moderate symmetrical distension of abdomenRestriction of sodium intake and diureticsGrade 3 ascitesLarge or gross ascites with marked abdominal distensionLarge-volume paracentesis followed by restriction of sodium intake and diuretics (unless patients have refractory ascites) Open table in a new tab A diagnostic paracentesis with an appropriate ascitic fluid analysis is essential in all patients investigated for ascites prior to any therapy to exclude causes of ascites other than cirrhosis and rule out spontaneous bacterial peritonitis (SBP) in cirrhosis. When the diagnosis of cirrhosis is not clinically evident, ascites due to portal hypertension can be readily differentiated from ascites due to other causes by the serum–ascites albumin gradient (SAAG). If the SAAG is greater than or equal to 1.1 g/dl (or 11 g/L), ascites is ascribed to portal hypertension with an approximate 97% accuracy [8Runyon B.A. Practice Guidelines Committee, American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases (AASLD)Management of adult patients with ascites due to cirrhosis.Hepatology. 2004; 39: 841-855Crossref PubMed Scopus (254) Google Scholar, 9Runyon B.A. Montano A.A. Akriviadis E.A. et al.The serum–ascites albumin gradient is superior to the exudate–transudate concept in the differential diagnosis of ascites.Ann Intern Med. 1992; 117: 215-220Crossref PubMed Google Scholar]. Total ascitic fluid protein concentration should be measured to assess the risk of SBP since patients with protein concentration lower than 15 g/L have an increased risk of SBP [[10]Rimola A. Gracia-Tsao G. Navasa M. et al.Diagnosis, treatment and prophylaxis of spontaneous bacterial peritonitis: a consensus document. International Ascites Club.J Hepatol. 2000; 32: 142-153Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar]. A neutrophil count should be obtained to rule out the existence of SBP [[10]Rimola A. Gracia-Tsao G. Navasa M. et al.Diagnosis, treatment and prophylaxis of spontaneous bacterial peritonitis: a consensus document. International Ascites Club.J Hepatol. 2000; 32: 142-153Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar]. Ascitic fluid inoculation (10 ml) in blood culture bottles should be performed at the bedside in all patients. Other tests, such as amylase, cytology, PCR and culture for mycobacteria should be done only when the diagnosis is unclear or if there is a clinical suspicion of pancreatic disease, malignancy, or tuberculosis [8Runyon B.A. Practice Guidelines Committee, American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases (AASLD)Management of adult patients with ascites due to cirrhosis.Hepatology. 2004; 39: 841-855Crossref PubMed Scopus (254) Google Scholar, 9Runyon B.A. Montano A.A. Akriviadis E.A. et al.The serum–ascites albumin gradient is superior to the exudate–transudate concept in the differential diagnosis of ascites.Ann Intern Med. 1992; 117: 215-220Crossref PubMed Google Scholar, 10Rimola A. Gracia-Tsao G. Navasa M. et al.Diagnosis, treatment and prophylaxis of spontaneous bacterial peritonitis: a consensus document. International Ascites Club.J Hepatol. 2000; 32: 142-153Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar, 11Moore K.P. Wong F. Ginès P. et al.The management of ascites in cirrhosis: report on the consensus conference of the International Ascites Club.Hepatology. 2003; 38: 258-266Crossref PubMed Scopus (348) Google Scholar]. Recommendations A diagnostic paracentesis should be performed in all patients with new onset grade 2 or 3 ascites, and in all patients hospitalized for worsening of ascites or any complication of cirrhosis (Level A1). Neutrophil count and culture of ascitic fluid (by inoculation into blood culture bottles at the bedside) should be performed to exclude bacterial peritonitis (Level A1). It is important to measure ascitic total protein concentration, since patients with an ascitic protein concentration of less than 15 g/L have an increased risk of developing spontaneous bacterial peritonitis (Level A1) and may benefit from antibiotic prophylaxis (Level A1). Measurement of the serum–ascites albumin gradient may be useful when the diagnosis of cirrhosis is not clinically evident or in patients with cirrhosis in whom a cause of ascites different than cirrhosis is suspected (Level A2). The development of ascites in cirrhosis indicates a poor prognosis. The mortality is approximately 40% at 1 year and 50% at 2 years [[7]Guevara M. Cárdenas A. Uriz J. Ginès P. Prognosis in patients with cirrhosis and ascites.in: Ginès P. Arroyo V. Rodés J. Schrier R.W. Ascites and renal dysfunction in liver disease: pathogenesis, diagnosis and treatment. Blackwell, Malden2005: 260-270Crossref Google Scholar]. The most reliable factors in the prediction of poor prognosis include: hyponatremia, low arterial pressure, increased serum creatinine, and low urine sodium [7Guevara M. Cárdenas A. Uriz J. Ginès P. Prognosis in patients with cirrhosis and ascites.in: Ginès P. Arroyo V. Rodés J. Schrier R.W. Ascites and renal dysfunction in liver disease: pathogenesis, diagnosis and treatment. Blackwell, Malden2005: 260-270Crossref Google Scholar, 12Llach J. Ginès P. Arroyo V. et al.Prognostic value of arterial pressure, endogenous vasoactive systems and renal function in cirrhotic patients admitted to the hospital for the treatment of ascites.Gastroenterology. 1988; 94: 482-487Abstract PubMed Google Scholar]. These parameters are not included in the Child-Turcotte-Pugh score (CTP score) and among them, only serum creatinine is included in the Model for end-stage liver disease (MELD score). Furthermore, since serum creatinine has limitations as an estimate of glomerular filtration rate in cirrhosis [[13]Caregaro L. Menon F. Angeli P. et al.Limitations of serum creatinine level and creatinine clearance as filtration markers in cirrhosis.Arch Intern Med. 1994; 154: 201-205Crossref PubMed Google Scholar], these scores probably underestimate the mortality risk in patients with ascites [[14]Heuman D.M. Abou-assi S.G. Habib A. et al.Persistent ascites and low sodium identify patients with cirrhosis and low MELD score who are at high risk for early death.Hepatology. 2004; 40: 802-810Crossref PubMed Google Scholar]. Since allocation for liver transplantation is based on the MELD score in several countries, patients with ascites may not receive an adequate priority in the transplant lists. Therefore, there is a need for improved methods to assess prognosis in patients with ascites. Recommendations Since the development of grade 2 or 3 ascites in patients with cirrhosis is associated with reduced survival, liver transplantation should be considered as a potential treatment option (Level B1). Patients with cirrhosis and ascites are at high risk for other complications of liver disease, including refractory ascites, SBP, hyponatremia, or hepatorenal syndrome (HRS). The absence of these ascites-related complications qualifies ascites as uncomplicated [[11]Moore K.P. Wong F. Ginès P. et al.The management of ascites in cirrhosis: report on the consensus conference of the International Ascites Club.Hepatology. 2003; 38: 258-266Crossref PubMed Scopus (348) Google Scholar]. No data exist on the natural history of grade 1 ascites, and it is not known how frequently patients with grade 1 or mild ascites will develop grade 2 or 3 ascites. Patients with moderate ascites can be treated as outpatients and do not require hospitalization unless they have other complications of cirrhosis. Renal sodium excretion is not severely impaired in most of these patients, but sodium excretion is low relative to sodium intake. Treatment is aimed at counteracting renal sodium retention and achieving a negative sodium balance. This is done by reducing the sodium intake and enhancing the renal sodium excretion by administration of diuretics. Whilst the assumption of the upright posture activates sodium-retaining systems and slightly impairs renal perfusion [[15]Ring-Larsen H. Henriksen J.H. Wilken C. et al.Diuretic treatment in decompensated cirrhosis and congestive heart failure: effect of posture.Br Med J. 1986; 292: 1351-1353Crossref PubMed Google Scholar], forced bed rest is not recommended because there are no clinical trials assessing whether it improves the clinical efficacy of the medical treatment of ascites. A negative sodium balance can be obtained by reducing dietary salt intake in approximately 10–20% of cirrhotic patients with ascites, particularly in those presenting with their first episode of ascites [16Gatta A. Angeli P. Caregaro L. Menon F. Sacerdoti D. Merkel C. A pathophysiological interpretation of unresponsiveness to spironolactone in a stepped-care approach to the diuretic treatment of ascites in nonazotemic cirrhotic patients with ascites.Hepatology. 1991; 14: 231-236Crossref PubMed Google Scholar, 17Bernardi M. Laffi G. Salvagnini M. et al.Efficacy and safety of the stepped care medical treatment of ascites in liver cirrhosis: a randomized controlled clinical trial comparing two diets with different sodium content.Liver. 1993; 13: 156-162Crossref PubMed Google Scholar]. There are no controlled clinical trials comparing restricted versus unrestricted sodium intake and the results of clinical trials in which different regimens of restricted sodium intake were compared are controversial [17Bernardi M. Laffi G. Salvagnini M. et al.Efficacy and safety of the stepped care medical treatment of ascites in liver cirrhosis: a randomized controlled clinical trial comparing two diets with different sodium content.Liver. 1993; 13: 156-162Crossref PubMed Google Scholar, 18Gauthier A. Levy V.G. Quinton A. Salt or not salt in the treatment of cirrhotic ascites: a randomized study.Gut. 1986; 27: 705-709Crossref PubMed Google Scholar]. Nevertheless, it is the current opinion that dietary salt intake should be moderately restricted (approximately 80–120 mmol of sodium per day). A more severe reduction in dietary sodium content is considered unnecessary and even potentially detrimental since it may impair nutritional status. There are no data to support the prophylactic use of salt restriction in patients who have never had ascites. Fluid intake should be restricted only in patients with dilutional hyponatremia. Recommendations Moderate restriction of salt intake is an important component of the management of ascites (intake of sodium of 80–120 mmol/day, which corresponds to 4.6–6.9 g of salt/day) (Level B1). This is generally equivalent to a no added salt diet with avoidance of pre-prepared meals. There is insufficient evidence to recommend bed rest as part of the treatment of ascites. There are no data to support the use of fluid restriction in patients with ascites with normal serum sodium concentration (Level B1). Evidence demonstrates that renal sodium retention in patients with cirrhosis and ascites is mainly due to increased proximal as well as distal tubular sodium reabsorption rather than to a decrease of filtered sodium load [19Angeli P. Gatta A. Caregaro L. et al.Tubular site of renal sodium retention in ascitic liver cirrhosis evaluated by lithium clearance.Eur J Clin Invest. 1990; 20: 111-117Crossref PubMed Google Scholar, 20Angeli P. De Bei E. Dalla Pria M. et al.Effects of amiloride on renal lithium handling in nonazotemic ascitic cirrhotic patients with avid sodium retention.Hepatology. 1992; 15: 651-654Crossref PubMed Google Scholar]. The mediators of the enhanced proximal tubular reabsorption of sodium have not been elucidated completely, while the increased reabsorption of sodium along the distal tubule is mostly related to hyperaldosteronism [[21]Bernardi M. Servadei D. Trevisani F. et al.Importance of plasma aldosterone concentration on natriuretic effect of spironolactone in patients with liver cirrhosis and ascites.Digestion. 1985; 31: 189-193Crossref PubMed Google Scholar]. Aldosterone antagonists are more effective than loop diuretics in the management of ascites and are the diuretics of choice [[22]Pérez-Ayuso R.M. Arroyo V. Planas R. et al.Randomized comparative study of efficacy of furosemide versus spironolactone in nonazotemic cirrhosis with ascites.Gastroenterology. 1984; 84: 961-968Google Scholar]. Aldosterone stimulates renal sodium reabsorption by increasing both the permeability of the luminal membrane of principal cells to sodium and the activity of the Na/K ATPase pump in the basolateral membrane. Since the effect of aldosterone is slow, as it involves interaction with a cytosolic receptor and then a nuclear receptor, the dosage of antialdosteronic drugs should be increased every 7 days. Amiloride, a diuretic acting in the collecting duct, is less effective than aldosterone antagonists and should be used only in those patients who develop severe side effects with aldosterone antagonists [[23]Angeli P. Dalla Pria M. De Bei E. et al.Randomized clinical study of the efficacy of amiloride and potassium canrenoate in nonazotemic cirrhotic patients with ascites.Hepatology. 1994; 19: 72-79Crossref PubMed Google Scholar]. A long-standing debate in the management of ascites is whether aldosterone antagonists should be given alone or in combination with a loop diuretic (i.e., furosemide). Two studies have assessed which is the best approach to therapy, either aldosterone antagonists in a stepwise increase every 7 days (100–400 mg/day in 100 mg/day steps) with furosemide (40–160 mg/day, in 40 mg/day steps) added only in patients not responding to high doses of aldosterone antagonists or combined therapy of aldosterone antagonists and furosemide from the beginning of treatment (100 and 40 mg/day increased in a stepwise manner every 7 days in case of no response up to 400 and 160 mg/day) [24Angeli P. Fasolato S. Mazza E. et al.Combined versus sequential diuretic treatment of ascites in nonazotemic patients with cirrhosis: results of an open randomized clinical trial.Gut. 2010; 59: 98-104Crossref PubMed Scopus (35) Google Scholar, 25Santos J. Planas R. Pardo A. et al.Spironolactone alone or in combination with furosemide in the treatment of moderate ascites in nonazotemic cirrhosis. A randomized comparative study of efficacy and safety.J Hepatol. 2003; 39: 187-192Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (70) Google Scholar]. These studies showed discrepant findings which were likely due to differences in the populations of patients studied, specifically with respect to the percentage of patients with the first episode of ascites included in the two studies [[26]Bernardi M. Optimum use of diuretics in managing ascites in patients with cirrhosis.Gut. 2010; 59: 10-11Crossref PubMed Scopus (7) Google Scholar]. From these studies it can be concluded that a diuretic regime based on the combination of aldosterone antagonists and furosemide is the most adequate for patients with recurrent ascites but not for patients with a first episode of ascites. These latter patients should be treated initially only with an aldosterone antagonist (i.e., spironolactone 100 mg/day) from the start of therapy and increased in a stepwise manner every 7 days up to 400 mg/day in the unlikely case of no response. In all patients, diuretic dosage should be adjusted to achieve a rate of weight loss of no greater than 0.5 kg/day in patients without peripheral edema and 1 kg/day in those with peripheral edema to prevent diuretic-induced renal failure and/or hyponatremia [[27]Shear L.S. Ching S. Gabuzda G.J. Compartimentalization of ascites and edema in patients with cirrhosis.N Engl J Med. 1970; 282: 1391-1395Crossref PubMed Google Scholar]. Following mobilization of ascites, diuretics should be reduced to maintain patients with minimal or no ascites to avoid diuretic-induced complications. Alcohol abstinence is crucial for the control of ascites in patients with alcohol-related cirrhosis. The use of diuretics may be associated with several complications such as renal failure, hepatic encephalopathy, electrolyte disorders, gynaecomastia, and muscle cramps [20Angeli P. De Bei E. Dalla Pria M. et al.Effects of amiloride on renal lithium handling in nonazotemic ascitic cirrhotic patients with avid sodium retention.Hepatology. 1992; 15: 651-654Crossref PubMed Google Scholar, 21Bernardi M. Servadei D. Trevisani F. et al.Importance of plasma aldosterone concentration on natriuretic effect of spironolactone in patients with liver cirrhosis and ascites.Digestion. 1985; 31: 189-193Crossref PubMed Google Scholar, 22Pérez-Ayuso R.M. Arroyo V. Planas R. et al.Randomized comparative study of efficacy of furosemide versus spironolactone in nonazotemic cirrhosis with ascites.Gastroenterology. 1984; 84: 961-968Google Scholar, 23Angeli P. Dalla Pria M. De Bei E. et al.Randomized clinical study of the efficacy of amiloride and potassium canrenoate in nonazotemic cirrhotic patients with ascites.Hepatology. 1994; 19: 72-79Crossref PubMed Google Scholar, 24Angeli P. Fasolato S. Mazza E. et al.Combined versus sequential diuretic treatment of ascites in nonazotemic patients with cirrhosis: results of an open randomized clinical trial.Gut. 2010; 59: 98-104Crossref PubMed Scopus (35) Google Scholar, 25Santos J. Planas R. Pardo A. et al.Spironolactone alone or in combination with furosemide in the treatment of moderate ascites in nonazotemic cirrhosis. A randomized comparative study of efficacy and safety.J Hepatol. 2003; 39: 187-192Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (70) Google Scholar, 26Bernardi M. Optimum use of diuretics in managing ascites in patients with cirrhosis.Gut. 2010; 59: 10-11Crossref PubMed Scopus (7) Google Scholar, 27Shear L.S. Ching S. Gabuzda G.J. Compartimentalization of ascites and edema in patients with cirrhosis.N Engl J Med. 1970; 282: 1391-1395Crossref PubMed Google Scholar, 28Marchesini G. Bianchi G.P. Amodio P. et al.Factors associated with poor health-related quality of life of patients with cirrhosis.Gastroenterology. 2001; 120: 170-178Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar, 29Angeli P. Albino G. Carraro P. et al.Cirrhosis and muscle cramps: evidence of a causal relationship.Hepatology. 1996; 23: 264-273Crossref PubMed Google Scholar]. Diuretic-induced renal failure is most frequently due to intravascular volume depletion that usually occurs as a result of an excessive diuretic therapy [[27]Shear L.S. Ching S. Gabuzda G.J. Compartimentalization of ascites and edema in patients with cirrhosis.N Engl J Med. 1970; 282: 1391-1395Crossref PubMed Google Scholar]. Diuretic therapy has been classically considered a precipitating factor of hepatic encephalopathy, yet the mechanism is unknown. Hypokalemia may occur if patients are treated with loop diuretics alone. Hyperkalemia may develop as a result of treatment with aldosterone antagonists or other potassium-sparing diuretics, particularly in patients with renal impairment. Hyponatremia is another frequent complication of diuretic therapy. The level of hyponatremia at which diuretics should be stopped is contentious. However, most experts agree that diuretics should be stopped temporarily in patients whose serum sodium decreases to less than 120–125 mmol/L. Gynaecomastia is common with the use of aldosterone antagonists, but it does not usually require discontinuation of treatment. Finally, diuretics may cause muscle cramps [28Marchesini G. Bianchi G.P. Amodio P. et al.Factors associated with poor health-related quality of life of patients with cirrhosis.Gastroenterology. 2001; 120: 170-178Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar, 29Angeli P. Albino G. Carraro P. et al.Cirrhosis and muscle cramps: evidence of a causal relationship.Hepatology. 1996; 23: 264-273Crossref PubMed Google Scholar]. If cramps are severe, diuretic dose should be decreased or stopped and albumin infusion may relieve symptoms [[29]Angeli P. Albino G. Carraro P. et al.Cirrhosis and muscle cramps: evidence of a causal relationship.Hepatology. 1996; 23: 264-273Crossref PubMed Google Scholar]. A significant proportion of patients develop diuretic-induced complications during the first weeks of treatment [[24]Angeli P. Fasolato S. Mazza E. et al.Combined versus sequential diuretic treatment of ascites in nonazotemic patients with cirrhosis: results of an open randomized clinical trial.Gut. 2010; 59: 98-104Crossref PubMed Scopus (35) Google Scholar]. Thus, frequent measurements of serum creatinine, sodium, and potassium concentration should be performed during this period. Routine measurement of urine sodium is not necessary, except for non-responders in whom urine sodium provides an assessment of the natriuretic response to diuretics. Recommendations Patients with the first episode of grade 2 (moderate) ascites should receive an aldosterone antagonist such as spironolactone alone, starting at 100 mg/day and increasing stepwise every 7 days (in 100 mg steps) to a maximum of 400 mg/day if there is no response (Level A1). In patients who do not respond to aldosterone antagonists, as defined by a reduction of body weight of less than 2 kg/week, or in patients who develop hyperkalemia, furosemide should be added at an increasing stepwise dose from 40 mg/day to a maximum of 160 mg/day (in 40 mg steps) (Level A1). Patients should undergo frequent clinical and biochemical monitoring particularly during the first month of treatment (Level A1). Patients with recurrent ascites should be treated with a combination of an aldosterone antagonist plus furosemide, the dose of which should be increased sequentially according to response, as explained above (Level A1). The maximum recommended weight loss during diuretic therapy should be 0.5 kg/day in patients without edema and 1 kg/day in patients with edema (Level A1). The goal of long-term treatment is to maintain patients free of ascites with the minimum dose of diuretics. Thus, once the ascites has largely resolved, the dose of diuretics should be reduced and discontinued later, whenever possible (Level B1). Caution should be used when starting treatment with diuretics in patients with renal impairment, hyponatremia, or disturbances in serum potassium concentration and patients should be submitted to frequent clinical and biochemical monitoring. There is no good evidence as to what is the level of severity of renal impairment and hyponatremia in which diuretics should not be started. Serum potassium levels should be corrected before commencing diuretic therapy. Diuretics are generally contraindicated in patients with overt hepatic encephalopathy (Level B1). All diuretics should be discontinued if there is severe hyponatremia (serum sodium concentration <120 mmol/L), progressive renal failure, worsening hepatic encephalopathy, or incapacitating muscle cramps (Level B1). Furosemide should be stopped if there is severe hypokalemia (<3 mmol/L). Aldosterone antagonists should be stopped if patients develop severe hyperkalemia (serum potassium >6 mmol/L) (Level B1). Large-volume paracentesis (LVP) is the treatment of choice for the management of patients with grade 3 ascites. The main findings of studies comparing LVP with diuretics in patients with grade 3 ascites are summarized as follows [30Ginès P. Arroyo V. Quintero E. et al.Comparison of paracentesis and diuretics in the treatment of cirrhotics with tense ascites. Results of a randomized study.Gastroenterology. 1987; 92: 234-241PubMed Google Scholar, 31Ginès P. Tito L.V. Arroyo V. et al.Randomized comparative study of therapeutic paracentesis with and without intravenous albumin in cirrhosis.Gastroenterology. 1988; 94: 1493-1502Abstract PubMed Google Scholar, 32Salerno F. Badalamenti S. Incerti P. et al.Repeated paracentesis and i.v. albumin infusion to treat “tense ascites” in cirrhotic patients: a safe alternative therapy.J Hepatol. 1987; 5: 102-108Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (108) Google Scholar, 33Fassio E. Terg R. Landeira G. Abecasis R. Salemne M. Podesta A. et al.Paracentesis with dextran 70 vs. paracentesis with albumin in cirrhosis with tense ascites. Results of a randomized study.J Hepatol. 1992; 14: 310-316Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar, 34Acharya S.K. Balwinder S. Padhee A.K. et al.Large-volume paracentesis and intravenous dextran to treat tense ascites.J Clin Gastroentrol.