Organochlorine pesticides in multi-environmental matrices of India: A comprehensive review on characteristics, occurrence, and analytical methods

While the application of organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) has increased agricultural production and prevented vector-borne diseases such as malaria, dengue, and leishmaniasis, their extensive use has resulted in OCPs residue in various environmental conditions compartments. This review discusses the current knowledge on India's distribution, occurrence, and tendencies of OCPs in multi-ecological conditions (air, water, soil, and sediments) and biota (plants and animals). Moreover, the available analytical technique for measuring OCP in India was reviewed and detailed. Twenty years (2001–2020) published data/work on residual OCP contamination in different environmental matrices were reviewed and critically analyzed. The reviewed literature revealed that the contamination level of OCPs in the Indian environment is the highest globally. DDT, HCH, and endosulfan were the most investigated OCP compounds (notably air and water) in the Indian environment. Although the residual OCP has been documented well in soil, water, and sediments matrice, very little work is available concerning air matrix, indicating prioritization of future research on residual OCP in air. In the absence of advanced and modernized measurement techniques in India, the usage of more sensitive and accurate methods such as gas chromatography combined with high-resolution mass spectrometry (GC-HRMS) and matrix-assisted laser desorption time of flight mass spectrometry (MALD-TOF MS) or GC-TOF are warranted to capture the presence of secondary and tertiary metabolites of OCPs in environmental samples which are specific toxicant to human tissues and organs. There is a need for mass awareness and training to the farmer and other stakeholders about the fate of OCP pesticides in the environment.