Occurrence and Exposure Assessment of Bisphenol Analogues Through Different Types of Drinking Water in Korea

Presence of endocrine disruptors in drinking water is a public and global concern. Bisphenol A (BPA) has been primarily used for polycarbonate plastics and epoxy resins. Due to domestic and global regulations on BPA, other bisphenol analogues (BPs) have been introduced as alternatives. Despite this, few studies have been conducted for human health risks of BPA and their alternatives, such as bisphenol F (BPF) and bisphenol S (BPS), through the consumption of drinking water. The present study aimed to determine seven BPs in three types of drinking water (tap water, purified water, and bottled water) to assess the occurrence, regional differences, source tracking, and potential health risks of BPs. BPA and BPF were detectable in almost all drinking water samples. The BPA concentration in tap water was significantly higher than that observed in purified water, whereas the BPF concentration in purified water was higher than those observed in tap water and bottled water. This result provides a wake-up call to improve the safety of purified water for emerging contaminants, such as BPF. The highest BP concentrations were observed for regions with intensive industrial activities and human populations. The concentration ratios of BPF/BPA in all tap water samples were greater than 1, indicating replacement of BPA with BPF in industrial markets. Boiling increased BPA and decreased BPF and BPS concentrations in tap water. The estimated daily intakes of BPA through consumption of drinking water for all age groups and scenarios (0.36–0.72 ng/kg bw/day) were lower than the tolerable daily intake (4.0 µg/kg bw/day) proposed by the European Food Safety Authority, implying a limited health risk. Toddlers were the highest exposure group for all BPs and scenarios. This is the first comprehensive survey of several BPs in different types of drinking water.Graphical Abstract