Apocynin-loaded PLGA nanomedicine tailored with galactosylated chitosan intrigue asialoglycoprotein receptor in hepatic carcinoma: Prospective targeted therapy

Nature serves as a priceless source for phytomedicines to treat different types of cancer, including hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Apocynin (APO), an anti-cancer phytomedicine, is a particular nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate-oxidase (NADPH-oxidase) inhibitor, which has recently dawned for its multilateral pharmacological activities. As far as we are aware, no investigation has been carried out yet to develop a targeted-nanostructured delivery system of APO to HCC. Consequently, chitosan derivative with galactose groups namely; galactosylated chitosan (GC), particularly recognized by the asialoglycoprotein receptor (ASGR), was synthesized and its chemical structure was thoroughly characterized by substantial techniques. Afterwards, GC-coated nanoplatform for hepatocyte attachment "APO-loaded galactosylated chitosan-coated poly(d,l-lactide-co-glycolide) nanoparticles (APO-loaded GC-coated PLGA NPs)" was developed. The prosperous APO-loaded GC-coated PLGA NPs would be comprehensively appraised through extensive investigations. Their solid state characterization using Fourier transform-infrared spectroscopy, powder X-ray diffraction, and differential scanning calorimetry proved APO's encapsulation in the polymeric matrix. Transmission electron microscopy imaging of the investigated NPs highlighted their spherical architecture with a nanosized range and a characteristic halo-like appearance traceable to the GC coating of the NPs' surface. Saliently, the results of in vitro cytotoxicity screening revealed the spectacular anti-cancer efficacy of APO-loaded GC-coated PLGA NPs formula against the HepG2 cell line. Moreover, the fluorescence microscope disclosed the distinguished cellular uptake of such formula via ASGPR mediated endocytosis. Inclusively, a multifunctional nano-phytomedicine delivery system with a promising active hepatocyte-targeting, effective uptake into HepG2 cells, and sustained drug release pattern was successfully developed.