Global diversity, coexistence and consequences of resistome in inland waters

Human activities have long impacted the health of Earth's rivers and lakes. These inland waters, crucial for our survival and productivity, have suffered from contamination which allows the formation and spread of antibiotic-resistant genes (ARGs) and consequently, ARG-carrying pathogens (APs). Yet, our global understanding of waterborne pathogen antibiotic resistance remains in its infancy. To shed light on this, our study examined 1240 metagenomic samples from both open and closed inland waters. We identified 22 types of ARGs, 19 types of Mobile Genetic Elements (MGEs), and 14 types of Virulence Factors (VFs). Our findings showed that open waters have a higher abundance and richness of ARGs, MGEs, and VFs, with more robust network connectivity and stability compared to closed waters. Out of the samples studied, 321 APs were detected, representing a 43% detection rate. Of these, the resistance gene 'bacA' was the most predominant. Notably, AP hotspots were identified in regions including East Asia, India, Western Europe, the eastern United States, and Brazil. Our research underscores how human activities profoundly influence the diversity and spread of resistome. Meanwhile, both abiotic and biotic factors play pivotal roles in the emergence of ARG-carrying pathogens.