Multimodal characterization of sexual dimorphism in the mammalian kidney

In mammals, sex chromosomes drive different phenotypes between the sexes, including development of unique reproductive systems and distinct endocrine (hormonal) metabolism. Sex hormones (androgens and estrogens) can interact with ligand-dependent nuclear steroid receptors, regulate autosomal gene expression,1,2 and, thus, contribute to sexual dimorphism in nonreproductive tissues, including kidney. A substantial body of evidence suggests that sex differences play roles in human kidney physiology and pathology.